In class today, we discussed the Norman Conquest, which, as with nearly every historical event, is much more complex than it first appears. In high school history, everyone is taught the basics, which literally amounts to: “in 1066, William of Normandy invaded England and took the throne.” Nothing about why William felt compelled to take the English throne, why he did it in 1066, or if there were any other claimants to the crown. To begin with the first point, explaining William of Normandy’s claim to the throne of Anglo-Saxon England requires going back nearly four hundred years in history. Essentially, one could argue that the enormous social, cultural, and political consequences of the Norman Conquest in 1066 were due to population issues, something that is rarely considered but that is crucial in world history. In the ancient days, population in Norway and Sweden had largely been concentrated in the south, in the only areas of the two countries suitable for farming; as can be imagined, this led to a great concentration of population in those areas. However, this likely would not have been a problem, due to high mortality rates, had it not been for a warming period in the earth’s climate from around 650 to 850. With a warmer climate, more crops could be grown, leading, in time, to an increase in population. Because of the barrenness of northern Scandinavia, the increasing population could not spread north, leading to an imminent population crisis for the Scandinavians.
Also contributing to the population problem was the Scandinavian system of divided inheritance, rather than primogeniture inheritance. This meant that all children, perhaps even women, would receive a portion of their parents’ land, leading to ever-smaller plots of land that their owners could barely farm. With an increasing population, this system of inheritance was stretched to its breaking point. Simply put, the Scandinavians needed more land; therefore, to acquire it, they set out for new lands, beginning the Viking raids of the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries. The first recorded Viking raid in England was in 793, in the south. However, later that year, the Vikings returned to sack the monastery at Lindisfarne, stealing the monastery’s silver and taking the monks away to be sold as slaves in the Middle East. Over the centuries, the Swedish Vikings traveled east to present-day Germany, Poland, Russia, and the Baltic states, eventually making it to the Mediterranean from Crimea. For their part, the Norwegians traveled east to England, Scotland, Ireland, Iceland, and even Newfoundland. All of this trade and traveling caused Viking society to flourish, allowing them to escape the population crisis by spreading out across Europe. Furthermore, Vikings were amazing sailors, with boats that allowed them to travel swiftly near the coast or up rivers, thus allowing them to arrive quickly and stealthily at their raiding target.
But how does all of this relate to the Norman Conquest? The answer lies in the origin of the name “Norman”: “Norsemen.” In all of their traveling, the Vikings eventually got to France, where they proceeded up the Seine to Paris; in exchange for freedom, the French king allowed the Vikings to settle in the area that would become known as Normandy. Over time, the Norsemen became Normans, speaking a dialect of French, but keeping their skill with boats and their skill at warfare. Switching to England briefly, the king in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries was Aethelred, who had married Emma of Normandy in the hopes of brokering an alliance that would end Viking raids on England. This was not to be, however, as England was conquered by the Danish King Sweyn in 1015; although Sweyn died the next year, Danish control of England remained, as he was succeeded by his son Canute, who reigned until his own death in 1035. With the overthrow of Aethelred, his son, Edward (later the Confessor) fled to his mother’s homeland of Normandy, where he became acquainted with Norman society and culture. When Canute died in 1035, he was succeeded by his sons Harold and Harthacanute, neither of whom lasted very long on the throne. Upon Harthacanute’s death in 1042, an Anglo-Saxon finally took back the English throne, as Edward the Confessor finally succeeded his father as King of England.
Edward brought with him his own dynastic problems, however, which ultimately lead to the events of 1066. Other than the king, the most powerful man in England was Earl Godwin of Wessex; in order to gain Earl Godwin’s loyalty, Edward the Confessor married his daughter Edith. They had no children, though, possibly because Edward was unwilling to consummate the marriage for religious reasons. Edith of Wessex had several brothers, though, among them the ambitious Harold Godwinson and the resentful Tostig, former Earl of Northumbria, who was determined to get his lands back after being deposed. When Edward the Confessor died in January 1066, all of these seemingly disparate threads would suddenly come together in a violent struggle for the throne. In Normandy, Duke William looked for his chance, due to his tenuous blood connection through Emma of Normandy, as well as his belief that Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne. Furthermore, William also believed he had extracted an oath from Harold, after the latter was shipwrecked in Normandy, to aid William in his quest for the throne. However, in England, Harold quickly had himself proclaimed king, seizing his opportunity to gain even greater power. And, at the same time, another player entered the scene: Harald Hardraada of Norway, who saw an opportunity to extend Viking control over England yet again. Hardraada was aided by Tostig Godwinson, ready to do anything to revenge himself on his brother.
Throughout the summer, Harold, William, and Harald Hardraada all gathered their forces, readying for invasion and defense. The Normans, though, waited on their coast for the right wind, as well as the right opportunity to land unopposed. Their opportunity came in September 1066, when Harald Hardraada landed his army in northern England, accompanied by Tostig. Harold, who had posted his forces along the southern coast, was forced to hurry north, gathering more men along the way. Before he could arrive, the Norwegians defeated English forces at the Battle of Fulford; however, on September 25, Harold’s army fought Hardraada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, defeating the Norwegians in an incredibly bloody battle. Of the 300 boats that had transported the Norwegian army to England, only 24 were needed to take them home again. Harold’s problems only increased with the defeat of the Norwegians, though, as William of Normandy’s army set sail one day after Stamford Bridge, landing in England virtually unopposed. Harold was now forced to head south once again, gathering a new army along the way.
The two armies finally met on the battlefield near Hastings, in Sussex, on October 14, 1066. Though not much is known about the battle itself, it is likely that William had a numerical advantage over Harold, as well as the advantage of having infantry and cavalry, for the Normans had used the sailing skills of their Viking forebears to transport horses as well as men across the English Channel. Despite this manpower superiority, the battle at first did not go in the Normans’ favor, due to the strong defensive position of the English. However, William did not retreat, but instead came up with a new strategy: he would feign withdrawal, in order to lure the English army out of its defensive position, then wheel around and counterattack. The plan ultimately worked in the Normans’ favor, as they feigned several retreats throughout the afternoon, only to counterattack each time. Late in the battle, the English army began to disintegrate after Harold was killed, possibly by an arrow; though some of his men made a final attempt to hold off the Normans, the English army retreated. The Normans had won the Battle of Hastings; in the coming weeks, William would subdue further resistance in the south before finally entering London. On December 25, 1066, William of Normandy was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey, representing an entirely new era for England.
However, that is a story for another day, as it is nearly as complex as the story of how William came to power in England in the first place. As can be inferred from the length of this post, my interest in the period around the Norman Conquest only continues to grow since I first started to learn the details and explore the complexity of it. There is so much more to the events of 1066 than “William invaded and became king.” If only everyone could learn the true story, for history is always much more interesting when details are added.
Making the Past Present 